Naval & Nautical Blog

Type XXI U-Boats

2011-11-06T06:48:00.000-08:00

As the threat from Allied patrol aircraft increased, the Germans attempted to develop faster submarines that could operate underwater for extended periods. Development of the hydrogen peroxide fueled walther turbine proved protracted, and a less radical solution was pursued in the form of the Type XXI. This design was conventionally powered, but with a massive battery capacity and a streamlined hull form that made the Type XXI faster submerged (18 knots) than on the surface. Importantly, these high submerged speeds could be maintained for long periods, vastly decreasing the sub's vulnerability to Allied ASW forces. Amament consisted of six bow tubes and two 30mm antiaircraft mounts.

Bibliography
"A Fish Out of Water" FineScale Modeler January 2006 p.46-52 Diorma of a Type XXI in drydock, using the Revell 1/144 scale kit.

Saipan class light carriers

2011-04-19T17:48:00.000-07:00

Saipan and Wright: The Last US CVLs. At around the same time that the Midway class carriers were taking shape, several classes of smaller CVs were being built as well. Early in the war, after taking multiple carrier losses, the USN had instituted a crash program to convert incomplete Cleveland-class cruisers into light fleet carriers. Designated the Independence class, these conversions started entering service in 1943; although better than nothing, and significantly faster than the merchant-based escort carriers, the CVLs were very cramped and suffered from stability problems. These problems notwithstanding, there was still American interest in the CVL idea, and in 1943 two ships of the improved Saipan class were ordered.

The Saipans were also cruiser-based carriers, although in this case their design stemmed from the Baltimore class heavy cruisers, and the hulls were built from the keel up for completion of flattops. Two ships, Saipan and Wright, were laid down in 1944, and commissioned in 1946 and 1947 respectively. Although substantially heavier than the Independence-class ships, the Saipans’ powerplants were accordingly more powerful, leading to a small increase in speed. The extra size allowed for additional fuel tankage, and hence a greater range, but this was really the limit of any improvement over the Independences, as the air wing size was about the same.

Both Saipan and Wright were active in their original configurations for some time, but never really made up a major part of the postwar carrier force, mainly carrying out training duties and ASW missions. Neither took part in any combat, although Saipan delivered AU-1 Corsairs to French forces in Indochina. The basic CVL design did not lend itself to angled deck conversion, so both Saipans would be decommissioned in the late 1950s.

While in mothballs, the Saipans were redesignated as AVT aircraft transports, as was the case with the surviving smaller CVLs, but never operated as such. It might have been expected that scrapping would not be long off, but both ships got a reprieve in the mid 1960s to serve as fast fleet command /communications ships, with the flight decks being used to fit large antennas. Saipan became the USS Arlington (AGMR-2) upon recommissioning in 1965, and served off Vietnam as well as assisting with the recovery of Apollo 8, 10, and 11. Wright retained her name, becoming CC-2 and serving in the Atlantic. These second careers were short, and both ships were again decommissioned in 1970 and were scrapped in 1976-80. Aside from the Spanish Dedalo (former USS Cabot) they were the last US CVLs in existence.

Bibliography
"First Jet Squadron on the CVL Saipan" Naval Aviation News July 1948. VF-17A deploys FH-1 Phantoms aboard USS Saipan.

"CVL Wright has Busy Year - Varied Activities Mark its Operation" Naval Aviation News August 1948 p.16

"Reserves Operate on Wright" Naval Aviation News November 1948. NAS Dallas-based reserve units conduct carrier training aboard USS Wright.

"Cabot Relieves Wright for Flight Training Duty" All Hands March 1949 p.24

"CVL-48 to AVT-6 to CC-3: Saipan to be third command ship" Naval Aviation News May 1963 p.6

LST-325

2011-03-29T18:08:00.001-07:00

LST-325 on the Ohio River

Boston & Canberra Missile Cruisers

2011-03-15T11:42:00.001-07:00

The US Navy had begun work on surface to air missiles well before the end of World War II, but it would be another decade before an operational SAM-armed ship would be deployed. Convair's Terrier missile was the first SAM to go to sea, aboard the test vessel (and former battleship) USS Mississippi. This was followed by the conversion of two Baltimore-class heavy cruisers, Boston and Canberra, to carry Terrier operationally. Entering service in 1955-56, the Bostons retained the forward 8-inch batteries and most of the 5-inch secondaries, but were otherwise extensively altered from their WWII configurations, receiving a single funnel, new aft superstructure, and two twin-arm Terrier launchers in place of the aft eight-inch turret.

The Bostons finally gave the USN a seagoing SAM capability, but were far from ideal, as the conversions were too costly to apply to further Baltimores, and in any case the early Terriers had limited performance. By the late 1960s, both ships had been re-rated back to heavy cruisers, and were decommissioned in 1970, following service in the gunline off Vietnam. Boston was stricken and scrapped in 1975, but Canberra was retained until 1980.

Bibliography

Photo: Boston launching a Terrier. All Hands August 1958 p.14

Photo: Canberra Terrier launcher. All Hands August 1958 p.39

Scale Models:

Yankee Modelworks has recently released a 1/350 scale USS Boston kit.

Regulus Missile

2008-10-26T10:49:00.000-07:00

REGULUS SLCM

Even as early as 1945, the USN was no stranger to SLCMs, having equipped an escort carrier to serve as a launcher for back-engineered copies of the German Fiesler 103, better known as the V-1 “buzz bomb”. This system was too late to see action against Japan, but the V-1 technology would figure prominently in early postwar cruise missile programs.

Republic's Loon was a fairly straightforward copy of the German missile, and although it did not enter regular service, the type was extensively used in tests. These included trials from converted diesel submarines, these boats being fitted with hangars on the aft deck, and a deck-mounted launcher for firing, which of course could only be done on the surface. The submarine launchings were successful, and the Loons were tracked by radar and remotely controlled, allowing somewhat better accuracy than the V-1, whose terminal descent had been triggered by a timer. Loon was too small to carry the nuclear weapons of the day, but was a harbinger of things to come.

Despite the post-1945 SLCM trials, the Navy fought in Korea with manned aircraft for the most part, although a number of sorties were made with radio controlled F6F drones that were flown into North Korean targets by Skyraider launch control aircraft. But back in the U.S., work had been underway since 1947 on a strategic nuclear-capable SLCM, the Chance-Vought Regulus. Regulus' design, conventional for the time, was heavily influenced by contemporary aircraft design, but was still an advance over the V-1/Loon type of missiles of only a few years previously. It was considerably larger, and pulse-jet propulsion was eschewed in favor of an Allison J33 turbojet fed through a nose intake, this engine being able to push the missile to high subsonic speed. The wing was swept back, and there was no horizontal tail. One example was fitted with a mockup canopy to deceive observers as to the true nature of the program, and early missiles had tricycle landing gear to allow recovery and reuse. RATO would be used to boost operational rounds off their launchers and into the air.

Two Gato-class diesel subs, Tunny and Barbero, were refitted as Regulus launch platforms, with large hangar structures attached to the deck aft of their sails. Upon surfacing in preparation for a shot, the hangar was opened and one of the two missiles contained therein moved out, its wings unfolded, and placed onto a launch rail aft of the hangar. Tunny carried out the first submarine launch of a Regulus, on July 15, 1953.

Regulus was also deployed on several Essex-class carriers; as the missile was essentially an unmanned aircraft anyway, a method of launching the rounds using the flattops' catapults was devised. Several heavy cruisers of the Baltimore class were also equipped to fire Regulus, in this case from their fantails. Regulus was withdrawn from the deterrent force by 1964, as the Polaris SLBM, which was available in larger numbers and essentially unstoppable, made the first-generation SLCM redundant. The Gato conversions were old, having been in service for two decades when Regulus was phased out, and Barbero was sunk as a target in 1964. Tunny had a little life left in her, though, and became a transport for special operations forces, using the former Regulus hangar to carry swimmer delivery vehicles. She saw duty off Vietnam before being used as a target in 1970.

Regulus Missile Bibliography
"Regulus, Navy Guided Missile Joins Ranks of 'Push-Button' Weapons" All Hands April 1954 p.38 Photo sequence shows launch from land, recoverable missile with lowered gear.

"New Launcher Weds Regulus, Catapult" Aviation Week February 20, 1956 p.29 3 illustrations

Photo: Regulus being launched from USS Tunny (SSG-282) All Hands June 1956 p.38 Also two photos of missiles on a CVA.

“Submarine Missile System” Aviation Week November 19, 1956 p.33 Four illustrations (launch sequence from Tunny)

"Regulus I Missiles Loaded Aboard Tunny" Aviation Week January 14, 1957 p.33 Four illustrations

Photo: Overhead view of a Regulus aboard USS Tunny. All Hands March 1957 p.5

Photo: Regulus advertisement March 18, 1957 p.149

Photo: Regulus being fired from the fantail of a cruiser. All Hands March 1958

Photo: USS Helena with Regulus on stern. All Hands August 1958 p.13

Web Resources:

Photos of a Regulus wreck on Hawaii. Very interesting story!

Polaris SLBM

2008-10-26T08:55:00.000-07:00

UGM-27 POLARIS

UGM-27A POLARIS A1
Since the early postwar years, a naval strategic nuclear capability using carrier-launched bombers had existed, and by the mid-1950s this was being expanded by the addition of the A3D Skywarrior, with supersonic follow-on designs projected. However, the day of the manned bomber seemed to be waning, and the USN was increasingly interested in sea-based ballistic missiles.

Early studies on a sea-based IRBM had been conducted as part of the Jupiter program, the Navy having been mandated to work with the Army in the hopes of producing a common weapon system. The idea was basically unworkable, as basing the large, liquid-fueled Jupiter at sea would have been a nightmare, and in any case only a small number could be carried by freighters and large submarines. An attempt was made to combine parts of the Jupiter with the solid rocket motor technology of the day; Jupiter-S, as the new concept was termed, would hardly have been much of an improvement, weighing in at a projected eighty tons and standing over forty feet tall. Really, the only holdover feature would be the Jupiter RV, as the S-model airframe would consist of a core solid motor that would serve as the second stage, this being surrounded by six first-stage motors. This was still not what the Navy was looking for, and by late 1956 the partnership with the Army was dissolved in favor of developing an all-new missile.

Planning for a more practical FBM system was made possible by several factors, all concerned with the miniaturization of components. More powerful solid fuels opened up the doorway to smaller missile airframes, which in turn could be fitted with lighter inertial guidance systems and new, smaller nuclear warheads. Such a weapon would be smaller than either Jupiter model, yet have equivalent range and firepower. This was the true genesis of the Polaris program, headed up by Admiral William F. Raburn, with the overall contract going to Lockheed.

A key requirement for the Polaris system was that the missiles be launched from underwater, thus vastly reducing the launch submarines' vulnerability. As igniting the first stage within the launch tube itself would destroy the submarine, it would be necessary to expel the weapon with a gas charge, ignition only taking place after reaching the surface. Surface test shots of dummy missiles were carried out at the San Francisco Naval Shipyard, while underwater tests were conducted off San Clemente Island. The first underwater launching of a Polaris mockup took place on March 23, 1958.

While design work on the Polaris was still underway, key technologies for the program had to be demonstrated in flight. Solid motors were tested with small rocket firings from the California coast, but it was also necessary to show that the Polaris' jetavator thrust vectoring system would work. The nose cone designs also needed flight verification, and these would be the tasks of the Polaris Flight Test Vehicles, which were actually Lockheed X-17 research rockets. FTV firings began in January 1958, and showed that the jetavators worked; later FTVs were successfully flown without the standard X-17 fins. The first real Polaris test article was situated at Cape Canaveral for the first test flight on September 24, 1958. Although the missile was launched, it self-destructed more than six miles overhead. Later test launches in the AX series fared little better, putting the program's future in jeopardy; it would not be until the sixth flight that a success would be scored. The first Polaris launch from a vessel took place on August 27, 1959; the test ship USS Observation Island, a refitted former transport, stood out to sea off Cape Canaveral for the shot, which successfully flew 700 miles down the Atlantic Missile Range.

While work on the missile system itself went ahead at a driven pace, another potential bottleneck loomed, as there was no way that a launch submarine designed from a blank sheet of paper would be ready in time. There was, however, an alternative. Construction had just begun on the Skipjack class of nuclear attack submarines, these being the first SSNs to use the high-speed “teardrop” hull pioneered by the diesel powered USS Albacore. Adding a missile section to this design was practical, and the first of the resulting SSBNs could be ready in time, as many long-lead time components were already being built. Construction had actually begun on Scorpion, the second unit of the class when the order came through to stop work, with the boat being restarted as the USS George Washington (SSBN-598).

The “Georgefish's” sisters were built from the keels up as SSBNs, although they did appropriate materials intended for the later Skipjack boats. George Washington was commissioned on December 30, 1959. By mid-1967, the entire class would receive the Polaris A-3, but this would be the last major update to the missile battery; installing Poseidon would have entailed a complete rebuild, which would not have been cost-effective.

Although the 900-mile ranges achieved by test missiles could be bettered by taking out nonoperational systems, it was admitted that the 1,500-mile range requirement was incompatible with a 1960 in-service date. Thus, the initial service, the UGM-27 A1, would only be an interim model pending deployment of a more developed missile.

Despite the obstacles that had faced the program, Polaris would indeed go into service in 1960 as planned. The first submarine launchings, fraught with anticipation, were conducted down the AMR by the George Washington on July 20, 1960. Both shots were successful, and in November of that year SSBN-598 set off on the first operational FBM patrol.

At first, the Soviets had no direct counterpart to the Polaris system, as their contemporaneous Hotel SSBNs and Golf SSBs could only fire short-ranged SLBMs from the surface. It would not be until the late 1960s that the Project 667 Navaga/Nalim (NATO Yankee) class SSBNs would enter service; these had the same general configuration as the Polaris boats, although the Soviet SS-N-6 Sawfly SLBMs used storable liquid fuel. Polaris A-2 and A-3 models replaced the A1s fairly rapidly, and the last UGM-27As were withdrawn in 1965.

POLARIS A2
The first improved version of the Polaris, the UGM-27B A2 model had actually been started well before the A1 had been put into service, as part of the effort to reach Soviet targets from further out at sea. A2 resembled the UGM-27A, and had an identical diameter, but was thirty inches longer thanks to a stretch of the first stage. The boost of the A2's range to 1,700 miles was due both to this increase in first-stage propellant, and a new second stage with high-energy fuel within a lightweight fiberglass housing; an alternative metal design had also been looked at. The second stage jetavators were also replaced by a rotating nozzle design.

The UGM-27B/A-2 flight test program began with a pad launch on November 10, 1960. A sea launch was conducted from Observation Island on March 2, 1961, and the first firing from a submarine, Ethan Allen (SSBN-608) occurred on October 23, 1961.

In order to maximize the time spent at sea, each Polaris boat would have dual crews (Blue and Gold) that would take turns deploying their subs on strategic patrols. However, even with the double crew system, allowances had to be made for boats to be unavailable for refits, and each time this happened, sixteen warheads would not be available. Ultimately, it was decided that a total of forty-one SSBNs would be bought - the “Forty-One For Freedom” as the buy was nicknamed. This would allow a substantial number to be on patrol at any given time. Overseas bases at Guam and Holy Loch, Scotland would also allow subs to spend less time in transit to and from their patrol areas.

While the George Washingtons were building, work was underway on a new, purpose-designed SSBN, the Ethan Allen class, which would be armed with the A2. The basic configuration remained the same, but the Ethan Allens were longer and heavier, as they were based on the Thresher-class SSNs, which used an elongated variation of the teardrop hull form.

Polaris A2 will probably go down in history as the only American ballistic missile to be operationally tested with a live nuclear warhead. Although Thors and Redstones had lofted weapons as part of tests, the Polaris test, codenamed Frigate Bird, and part of the Dominic series of tests, was intended to be an operational evaluation of an armed SLBM. Frigate Bird was conducted using Ethan Allen as the launch platform, and on May 6 1962 a single missile was fired at a target spot near Christmas Island in the Pacific.

Despite the arrival of the A3 model, A2 served for more than a decade, not being finally retired until late 1974. Some A2 launches were used to test features and technologies slated for the A3 system.

POLARIS A3
The ultimate Polaris model, the UGM-27C A3 bettered the original range requirement substantially, being able to hit targets 2,500 miles away. Achieving this increased range with a missile no longer or wider than the A2 meant that significant weight reductions would have to be made. Both A3 stages would have glassfiber motor casings, and the guidance electronics were made smaller and lighter. The A2's first stage jetavators were replaced by a rotating nozzle design, while the second stage used fluid injection for steering. The “front end” was entirely new, as A3 was the first US ballistic missile to have multiple warheads. The three Mk2 RVs, each with a W58 200kt warhead, had to be delivered into one general target area and hence were not MIRVs, but could ensure the destruction of large cities and other spread-out targets.

The first submarine firing of an A3 took place on October 26, 1963 from the USS Andrew Jackson. This boat was one of the Lafayette class, which was closely based on the Ethan Allen type, although the later boats were slightly longer and heavier. Nineteen “standard” Lafayettes were built, followed by a dozen improved boats sometimes known as the Benjamin Franklin class. The first-generation American SSBN force was complete by July 1967, when the 41st Polaris submarine, the USS Will Rogers, fired an A-3 in preparation for her first patrol that fall.

Polaris remained in USN service into the 1970s, although by the end of the decade only the oldest SSBNs were still fitted for the older missile. The end was not far off, however, as the older boats were now reaching the twenty-year mark, and were running out of hull life. There were proposals to use the Polaris tubes as Tomahawk launchers, but the new weapon's service introduction was too far off to make this practical. Polaris finally ended its service with the US in 1982, when the Robert E. Lee offloaded her missiles. The -598s were kept in service for a time as SSNs, but were not suitable for use as frontline combatants given their age and design, being used instead mainly for training. Even this use was short-lived, as the class soon went into mothballs; George Washington herself was the last of the 598s to go, being decommissioned in 1985. A few launches of surplus A3s as targets for missile defense tests have occurred, with the former SLBMs having been refitted under the STARS (Strategic Target System) designation.

UK POLARIS
Although the Royal Navy had been interested in Polaris from early on, no concrete action on procuring the system had taken place until the Nassau Conference, where Harold MacMillan opted for buying Polaris rather than proceeding with a British-only Skybolt. Under the terms of the deal, the US was to provide only the missiles, leaving construction of the warheads and launch submarines to the UK. This would allow the British to retain national control over the weapons (although planning would be coordinated with the US) while the American side could claim that there had been no export of nuclear arms. In reality, the British Polaris front-ends used American-built RVs, and the warheads themselves are said to have been based on the W-58 to save the cost and development time needed to procure a new design.

France was offered a similar deal, but President Charles de Gaulle formally turned it down early in 1963. Rebuffed by the US years earlier when it had sought nuclear gravity bombs for use at Dien Bien Phu, France had by the early 1960s settled on building its own independent triad of bombers, IRBMs, and missile submarines, although only the first part of this force would be in service before the 1970s. Even with the French refusal of a Polaris deal, there were still serious plans to export further missiles to the NATO alliance for deployment in Western Europe. The Multi-Lateral Force (MLF) concept would have put 200 Polaris A3s to sea aboard surface vessels crewed by multinational NATO crews. A total of 25 destroyer-class ships would be built new for the role, and the Italians actually demonstrated the hardware side of things, taking the old heavy cruiser Guiseppe Garibaldi and putting four Polaris tubes in the place of her ripped-out aftermost gun turret, the other aft mount giving way to a Terrier launcher. MLF never materialized, Garibaldi never operated with SLBMs, and plans for road-mobile Polaris derivatives for NATO basing also came to naught.

As the third nation to employ nuclear submarines, the UK was well able to build its own SSBN force, although the boats would incorporate some US technology. Just as the American Skipjack class formed the basis for the George Washington SSBNs, the British used their Valiant-class attack sub design as a springboard to the Resolution-class SSBN. In terms of overall dimensions, the Resolutions were all but identical to the American Lafayettes, although the British boats were slightly heavier and had their dive planes fitted to the forward part of the hull. Original plans called for five Resolutions, but the major defense cutbacks instituted by the Labour Government in 1965 kept the fifth boat from being completed. The return of the Conservative Party to power in the early 1970s would briefly revive hopes of going ahead with a fifth boat as well as a Poseidon refit for the existing subs, but these programs would not be carried out.

Even as the Resolutions were entering service, the UK Polaris force was facing a potent threat to its viability, namely the development of Soviet ABM defenses. The USN was responding to this problem by developing the MIRVed Poseidon missile, but although the Royal Navy subs could have been refitted with the larger weapon, fiscal restraints vetoed proposals to do this. The UK also had the major disadvantage of an SSBN force that was less than one-tenth the size of that of the US; with only four boats, only one could be counted on to be on station at any given moment. Clearly, barring the procurement of new missiles or additional submarines, neither of which was likely, a means had to be found to maximize the effectiveness of the existing Polaris system.

By the early 1970s, the Royal Navy had embarked on the Chevaline program to produce a new Polaris front-end. Chevaline actually resulted in the lowering of the number of warheads available, as one warhead per missile was sacrificed to make room for dummy RVs and other penetration aids. The warheads themselves are believed to have been rebuilt as well. Chevaline is thought to have started flight testing in 1977 with a pad launch from Cape Canaveral; like their US Navy counterparts, the British SSBNs conducted Polaris launches down the AMR.

By the time that the Chevaline program was nearing completion, the missile airframes themselves were hitting the twenty-year mark, and as Trident was still some time away, a program to rehabilitate the motors was carried out. Given the relatively low number of warheads that were available, and their unsuitability for attacking hardened targets, its seems entirely probable that the British Polaris fleet was tasked with holding major cities at risk; in the case of a concentrated strike on a single area, for example, a salvo of missiles could have been fired in short succession to overload any ABM defenses encountered.

The Resolutions were formally decommissioned between 1992 and 1996, although several had essentially been out of service before this. The Royal Navy finally retired Polaris in May 1996 with the offloading of HMS Repulse, the boat then being decommissioned in August of that year. As of 2000, the Resolutions were still in existence as hulks at Faslane.

Magazine Articles
“Boost for Polaris” Aviation Week & Space Technology October 28, 1957 p.30

“Polaris Begins Underwater Tests” Aviation Week November 4, 1957 p.34

“Compressed Air to Shoot Polaris From Submarine to Surface” Aviation Week April 21, 1958 p.31 3
illustrations

“Polaris Test Vehicle Launched” Aviation Week May 19, 1958 p.28 2 illustrations

Photo Sequence: Launch at Cape Canaveral of Polaris test vehicle. All Hands January 1959.

“Missile-Firing Sub” U.S. News & World Report October 5, 1959 p.4 1 illustration (USS Patrick Henry launching)

Photo: Polaris U.S. News & World Report December 14, 1959 p.45

William S. Reed “Lockheed Trims Polaris Vehicle’s Weight” Aviation Week February 8, 1960 p.52-59
4 illustrations

“Polaris A1X14 Test Vehicle Flies 900mi.” Aviation Week April 4, 1960 1 illustration

“Navy: Is Polaris Warhead Too Weak For Its Job” U.S. News & World Report July 11, 1960 p.40

Photo: Polaris U.S. News & World Report July 11, 1960 p.41

Edward H. Kolcum “First Polaris Launched From Submarine” Aviation Week July 25, 1960 p.32-33

“Navy Asks Evolution of 2,500 mi. Polaris” Aviation Week August 1, 1960 p.27

“A New Weapon Enters the U.S. Arsenal” U.S. News & World Report August 1, 1960 p.58 two illustrations.

“Polaris Test Vehicle Destroyed After Flying Off Planned Course” Aviation Week August 8, 1960 p.34

Photo: “Polaris Fired From Submarine” Aviation Week August 15, 1960 cover

“Navy Fires Polaris IRBM From Submarine” Aviation Week August 15, 1960 p.81 Four illustrations.

“Polaris A2X Readied For First Firing” Aviation Week October 3, 1960 p.37-38

Photo: Polaris launch U.S. News & World Report October 3, 1960 p.75

“Navy Plans to Begin Polaris A2 Testing” Aviation Week November 7, 1960 p.27

“U.S. Gets A Polaris Sub Base Abroad” U.S. News & World Report November 14, 1960 p.14 3
illustrations
“Polaris Sub Heads For Sea Duty” Aviation Week November 21, 1960 p.29 1 illustration

“A New Era In Warfare” U.S. News & World Report November 28, 1960 p.6 2 illustrations (SSBN)

“Atom Sub Launched - As Pacifists Protest” U.S. News & World Report December 5, 1960 p.16 1
illustration (USS Ethan Allen launching)

[Photo: Polaris launch] U.S. News & World Report January 23, 1961 p.62

Photo: Polaris & SSBN U.S. News & World Report January 23, 1961 p.63

“With The Polaris On Guard Near Russia” U.S. News & World Report February 13, 1961 p.48-49 5 illustrations
[Photo: Polaris] Aviation Week March 13, 1961 p.181

Photo: USS Patrick Henry U.S. News & World Report March 20, 1961 p.14

“Navy Plans to propose Sea Scout Again” Aviation Week April 10, 1961 p.27

“Polaris Mk.1 Inertial Guidance Package” Aviation Week May 22, 1961 p.85 1 illustration

Photo: Polaris U.S. News & World Report June 26, 1961 p.51

“’Early Spring ‘ Progress” Aviation Week July 17, 1961 p.38

Photo: SSBN advertisement Aviation Week & Space Technology August 7, 1961 p.20

“Underwater Launch Stand Installed” Aviation Week & Space Technology August 14, 1961 p.93 2
illustrations

“Problems May Cut Polaris A3 Range Goal” Aviation Week September 4, 1961 p.31

“Lockheed Polaris A-3 Tests Slated” Aviation Week & Space Technology April 2, 1962 p.23

“First Polaris A3 Test Is Partly Successful” Aviation Week & Space Technology August 13, 1962 p.29 1 illustration

“Submerged Sub Fires Polaris A-3” Aviation Week & Space Technology November 4, 1963 p.32

“A-3 Firing From Sub Shown” Aviation Week & Space Technology November 11, 1963 p.33

"Anti-Satellite Polaris Being Developed" Aviation Week & Space Technology September 28, 1964 p.18-19

“Air Force Cites Good Test Data In First STAFF System Flight” Aviation Week & Space Technology April 19, 1965 p.36 1 illustration

Photos: Polaris A1/A2/A3X-0 advertisement Aviation Week & Space Technology April 19, 1965 p.56

"Polarisville, U.S.A." All Hands September 1965. Article on the USN base at Charleston; includes photos of USS Proteus (AS-19) being refitted, SSBN receiving a Polaris tube lining, and Polaris Missile Facility Atlantic (POMFLANT) training facilities for FBM crews.

newspaper articles

“The Navy Fires a Dummy Polaris From an Underwater ‘Pop-Up’ Launcher” The New York Times April 12, 1958 p.1 2 illustrations

“Missile Launcher Simulates A Ship” The New York Times October 11, 1958 p.14

“Polaris Is Launched From a Ship at Sea” The New York Times August 28, 1959 p.1 c.8

Hanson W. Baldwin “2 Polaris Missiles Fired By Submerged Submarine; Hit Mark 1,150 Miles Off” The New York Times July 21, 1960 p.1 c.1 2 illustrations

“1,300-Mile Flight Sets Polaris Mark” The New York Times August 5, 1960 p.8 c.6

“Polaris Rocket Tests Begin” The New York Times November 18, 1966 p.34 c.1

Hanson W. Baldwin “A Perfect Polaris Shot Ends a Missile Chapter” The New York Times August 1, 1967

Talos Naval SAM

2008-10-25T20:51:00.000-07:00

Talos naval surface to air missile

The US Navy's quest for naval SAM systems began well before the end of World War II, driven by the emergence of new types of air threats, and the realization that these had to be countered as far out from the fleet as possible, well beyond the range of massed shipboard AAA fire. Combat experience off Sicily drove home this need, when several ships took heavy damage from German air-launched guided missiles. In the Pacific Theater, Kamikaze aircraft, for all intents and purposes cruise missiles with human terminal guidance, caused even greater harm.

Seeking to counter guided weapons with similar defensive measures, Project Bumblebee was initiated to provide a ship-based SAM. Early Lark test vehicles were flying before the end of the 1940s, but it would be nearly a decade before operational SAMs would arrive with the fleet. The Talos would be the largest of these early missiles, being designed to knock down enemy aircraft at long ranges. The first stage rocket booster had fixed fins at the base, as did the ramjet upper stage, which also had four movable control surfaces for steering.

Conventional rounds had beam-riding guidance for the majority of the flight profile, switching to SARH in the terminal phase. The nuclear version, fitted with a W30 was a pure beam-rider with command detonation of the warhead.

Talos went to sea aboard the Galveston-class CLGs (converted Cleveland-class light cruisers) the Albany class heavy cruiser conversions, and the new nuclear-powered Long Beach. Conventional rounds scored some MiG kills off Vietnam, and a few ARM conversions were fired against North Vietnamese radar sites in coastal areas.

Talos was seriously considered by the USAF as a means of providing air defense to major airbases in the continental United States, but these plans were dashed by Congress, and most AFBs that did have SAM cover were protected by Army Nikes, with a few being covered by USAF Bomarcs.

Talos was gradually withdrawn in the 1970s as the older cruisers were taken out of service, finally ending its service when the Oklahoma City went into mothballs in 1979. Long Beach, the only Talos ship to remain in service into the 1980s, had her deactivated RIM-8 equipment ripped out in 1979. Remaining Talos airframes were converted to high-speed targets under the designation MGM-8 Vandal and served in this role for years, although the supply was diminishing by the late 1990s, prompting the USN to buy and refit Russian missiles for use as targets.

Talos Missile Bibliography
Photo: Talos (testbed) cover Aviation Week January 16, 1956

David A. Anderton "Talos Integrates Terrier Frame, Ramjet" Aviation Week January 16, 1956 p.37-41 4 illustrations

“USAF Talos Plans Blocked” Aviation Week July 2, 1956 p.30

“Industry Observer” Aviation Week July 23, 1956 p.23

“Navy’s Talos Moves Into Operational Stage” Aviation Week June 24, 1957 p.40-41 6 illustrations

“Talos Blends Guidance Systems” Aviation Week July 15, 1957 p.89 1 illustration

“Automatic Talos Missile Evaluated in ‘Desert Ship’” Aviation Week October 28, 1957 p.74 3 illustrations

Philip J. Klass “Talos Has Conventional, Nuclear Punch” Aviation Week June 2, 1958 2 illustrations

Photo: Talos about to hit a QB-17 target drone. All Hands August 1958 p.14

Trident II SLBM

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UGM-133 TRIDENT II
Although an SLBM with ICBM-class range had been the ultimate goal of the ULMS project, it would not be until 1981 that a second-generation Trident program would be formally announced, by then-President Ronald Reagan. Substantially wider and taller than UGM-96, UGM-133 Trident II would only be fitted to the Ohios, as it was far too large to fit on the older boats.

One of the goals of the Trident II program was to increase the number of warheads per missile, and the new missile could carry up to a dozen Mk.5 RVs; UGM-133 would be armed with what may well be the last new strategic warhead mass produced by the US, the W88. This device has a yield of between 300 and 475 kilotons, and coupled with a CEP of less than 400 feet, makes it possible for Trident IIs to attack missile silos and buried command centers. Not all D5s were to have the Mk.5, as the lighter Mk.4s, many of which would be available from phased-out Trident Is, would be adequate for strikes against targets that were not superhardened. In any case, further production of the W88 has been mooted after the Rocky Flats, Colorado plant, where fuel for the warhead was produced, was suddenly shut down in 1989 over safety concerns. Tests with twelve warheads per missile were proposed in the late 1980s, but these were not carried out, as under the conventions of arms control, a missile that had been tested with twelve warheads had to be considered to carry that many in service use.

The first UGM-133 flight took place from a pad at Canaveral on January 15, 1987. USS Tennessee was to be the platform for submerged testing of Trident II, and the first such launch attempt took place on March 21, 1989 off Canaveral. This was far from successful, as the missile began pinwheeling violently almost immediately after the first stage ignited, resulting in the vehicle breaking apart. Tennessee launched another D5, this time successfully, on August 2, but the third test failed. With that setback, flight testing was put on hiatus, and plans for a 1989 operational date were abandoned. It was eventually determined that during the launch process, water was being trapped within the nozzle structure (which was wider than that of any previous SLBM) and this was causing structural loads that lead to the failures. Nozzle shields and other improvements were devised to counter this (with a very slight loss in performance due to the extra weight involved) and in December 1989 Tennessee successfully fired three D5s in a row, paving the way for the first operational UGM-133 patrol in March 1990.

The number of Ohios to be built was always in a state of fluctuation. Early on in the program, with defense budgets declining and the costs of the new boats increasing, as few as ten were projected, but in the Reagan years as many as thirty were considered. Even into the late 1980s, the force was to number at least twenty, but the final two were canceled (hull numbers had already been assigned to several more boats), and construction of Ohios finally ended with the commissioning of the USS Louisiana (SSBN-743) in September 1997.

UK TRIDENT II
By 1979, the British Polaris force was halfway through its projected service life, and planning for a successor had to begin if a deterrent was to be maintained into the 1990s. Given the time and expense of developing an all-British system, buying a US-made delivery system (while also contributing to the development costs) was the more attractive option. This meant that the only real options were the Trident and Ground-Launched Cruise Missile. In 1980, the Minister of Defense announced that the UK would follow Polaris with a Trident-based system, again using British warheads and domestically-built SSBNs. Like their Ohio counterparts, the Vanguard class SSBNs would be the largest submarines operated by their respective nation, although only sixteen missile tubes would be fitted to the British boats. Despite the problems the Royal Navy had encountered in maintaining constant patrols with only four Polaris boats, the Vanguards would also be a quartet (Vanguard, Victorious, Vigilant, Vengeance) all built at Barrow-in- Furness by Vickers.

Like the superpowers, Britain has reduced the size of its nuclear forces drastically, and today the Trident system is the only active British nuclear system. The lessening of tensions has allowed the force to be taken off a high alert level, but some missiles are now tasked with carrying out tactical strikes (replacing the retired WE177 gravity bombs) being fitted single warheads.

Magazine Articles

“Navy Plans Poseidon Follow-on As Mid-1970s Submarine Missile” Aviation Week & Space Technology February 26, 1968 p.18-19

Cecil Brownlow “Major ULMS Funding Expected” Aviation Week & Space Technology July 20, 1970 p.14-15

“Lockheed Wins Advanced Fleet Missile Award” Aviation Week & Space Technology December 6, 1971 p.16

“Trident Basing” Aviation Week & Space Technology February 26, 1973 p.12

Clarence A. Robinson, Jr. “New Propellant Evaluated For Trident Second Stage” Aviation Week & Space Technology October 13, 1975 p.15-19 2 illustrations (Poseidon)

Clarence A. Robinson, Jr. “Trident Post-Boost Control Tests Planned” Aviation Week & Space
Technology October 27, 1975 p.63-73 6 illustrations

Photo: “Poseidon and Trident with Aerospike” Aviation Week & Space Technology November 3, 1975 cover

“Trident Subsystem Tests in Final Phase” Aviation Week & Space Technology November 3, 1975 p.34-38 4 illustrations

“British Pick Trident to Ease Cost Impact” Aviation Week & Space Technology November 19, 1979 p.63

“Trident Missile Capabilities Advance” Aviation Week & Space Technology June 16, 1980 p.91-100 2 illustrations

David M. North “Survivability Key to Trident Program” Aviation Week & Space Technology June 16, 1980 p.101+ 2 illustrations

“New Trident Base Under Construction in West” Aviation Week & Space Technology June 16, 1980 p.112 1 illustration

“Navy Launches First Advanced Trident Missile” Aviation Week & Space Technology January 19, 1987 p.29

“Navy Flight Tests Trident 2 Missile” Aviation Week & Space Technology January 26, 1987 1 illustration

Edward H. Kolcum “Navy Assesses Failure of First Trident 2 Underwater Launch” Aviation Week &
Space Technology March 27, 1989 p.18-19 5 illustrations

Edward H. Kolcum “U.S. Navy Conducts Successful Underwater Launch of Lockheed Trident 2 Missile Off Florida Coast” Aviation Week & Space Technology August 7, 1989 p.19

“Navy Says Dec. 4 Underwater Launch Of Trident 2 Was Successful” Aviation Week & Space Technology December 11, 1989 p.39 1 illustration

Edward H. Kolcum “Three Successful Launches Verify Design Fixes to Trident 2 SLBM” Aviation Week & Space Technology January 8, 1990 p.50-51 3 illustrations

Douglas C. Waller “Practicing For Doomsday” Time March 12, 2001 p.46-50 3 illustrations

newspaper articles
“New Trident Submarine Test-Fires First Missile” The New York Times January 18, 1982 p.12 c.6

USS Croaker submarine

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HMS Furious aircraft carrier

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HMS Furious, 1943 USN recognition manual

Scale Models:
Loose Cannon Productions makes a 1/700 resin kit of Furious circa 1918

Archer class escort aircraft carrier

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1943 USN recognition manual

The first escort carrier for the Royal Navy, HMS Audacity, was converted for its new role in the UK, but the first class of CVEs, the Archers, were supplied by the US.

Avenger had a short operational life, sinking U-589 while part of a convoy to Russia, but was herself torpedoed and sunk two months later during the North African campaign.

Dasher had one of the kore mysterious fates to befall any modern warship, suddenly exploding while at anchor in the Clyde estuary on March 27, 1943. The ship sank in less than ten minutes, killing all but 149 of the crew. The survivors and rescuers were then ordered not to divulge any details of what happened in the Clyde, and most of the families were merely told that their sons, brothers, and hustbands were "missing". Some information was released in the early 1970s, but much still remains secret today. Some lay the blame on rushed American construction (Dasher had sufferred engine and structural problems throughout her short life) and faulty avgas systems - Archer and Biter subsequently had their fueling systems upgraded. yet, there are eyewitness reports that the explosion was due to a Swordfish crash on the ship. Whatever the reason, the Dasher disaster was the largest noncombat loss of life for the Royal Navy in World War II.

HMS Royal Sovereign battleship

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1943 USN recognition manual

HMS Renown battlecruiser

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USN recognition manual, 1943

Scale Models
White Ensign makes a 1/700 scale kit of Renown as the ship was configured in 1942.

Holland Submarine plan, 1892

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US Patent

USS Requin

2007-11-02T20:36:00.001-07:00

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Cruiser Olympia & Submarine Becuna

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USS Alabama Battleship memorial

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1913 12-foot race boat plans

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From a 1913 magazine (in the public domain)

Decommissioned British Subs

2007-10-20T18:02:00.000-07:00

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Many are familiar with the overhead shots of the various US mothball fleets, but the Royal Navy also has to store its excess warships somewhere - in this case decativated SSNs/SSBNs at Rosyth. One has to wonder how the reactors sections of these boats will be eventually disposed off, as they'll need a fair bit of space for a Hanford-style disposal facility. Of course, considering that the US only broke up Triton this year nearly forty years after decommissioning her, I imagine the UK boats might stay around awhile longer while provisions are made...

Former Dravo LST Yard

2007-10-20T17:18:00.001-07:00

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It's hard to believe today that Neville Island, a few scant miles from Pittsburgh was a major hub for warship building, but during WWII Dravo built many LSTs and subchasers at the company's Neville facility, from where they had to transit the whole length of the Ohio and Mississippi before finally hitting saltwater. Today, Dravo is but a memory, but traces of the operations still remain - the drydocks under the foliage are gone, but traces still remain - zooming out will show the remaining facilities to the right of these. I always thought it would've been appropriate to bring back an LST to Neville as a memorial- had the "Poison Park" at the end of the island opened, this would've been an ideal location. The park plans had called for using a refitted barge on the back channel side as a pool(!) - I would've much preferred something a little more historical. the park turned out to be laden with toxics, and is now the location of the Robert Morris University Island Sports Center, so the point is moot.